THE TREND OF TOYOTA LANDCRUISER FROM 1951 TO 2008

HOW AMAZING!

The Toyota automobile industry was in a fateful crisis from Japan's defeat in war and the chaos that followed it. However, military procurement enabled a recovery and the combination of the accumulation of technology from before the war and present material resulted in the development of an automobile above expectations.

Built From Good Materials, Production Period was from 1951-1955

The chassis of the Toyota Jeep BJ was based on the SB-type 1-ton truck (with an S-type 995cc engine) that was originally released in 1947. For that reason, at 2,400mm the wheelbase about 200mm longer than that of the Jeep, and the body was also a size larger.The SB-type compact truck was commonly known as the Pony Toyota (and later the Toyopet Truck), and because it was designed as a small transport vehicle that could also double as a passenger car, its suspension settings were likewise soft. These characteristics were carried over into the Toyota BJ-type, so it gave a surprisingly comfortable ride.The engine was a 3,386cc water-cooled in-line 6-cylinder B-type gasoline engine. Jeeps being built at that time had a side valve construction, but the B-type engine was an OHV type. The engine was originally designed in 1937, with the first prototype completed the next year in 1938, after which it was installed in the GB-type truck, the KB-type truck, and the BM-type truck, being primarily an engine for 4-ton class trucks.

The Toyota Jeep BJ was completed in 1951, and first unveiled that same year at a public showing of Toyota vehicles. There were 26 Toyota vehicles displayed at this event, and during the 3-day period the attendance amounted to some 200,000 people. Moreover, the design of the Crown was begun in 1952, with the first Crown model built in 1955. At the time it was considered unusual to say the least to match a 4-ton truck engine with a compact truck chassis, but in reality these were the only materials that Toyota had to work with. It turned out to be a successful combination. An ample sized body useful for transporting materials driven by an engine with power to spare, this model met multiple needs in the market for a compact 4x4 vehicle at a high level.

Production Period was from 1955-1960

Since just right after Japan's recovery from the war and its aftermath, Toyota already had future visions to export its domestic vehicles overseas. These forward-thinking Toyota employees knew just how important the Land Cruiser was to take this large step forward into further making their dreams a reality. The Toyota Crown was first released in Japan in the mid-1950s when Toyota was working fast to build a domestic sales network to handle the demand.It was in such circumstances that from 1956 on, as part of Toyota's strategy the company decided on what was called the Land Cruiser strategy for foreign markets. Given the fact that its performance could hold its own against rival models such as the Willys Jeep and Land Rover, Toyota decided it was the right time to expand in foreign markets, and whenever the opportunity presented itself Toyota was there with the Land Cruiser right out front. The Land Cruiser helped Toyota establish a bridgehead, and the idea was to follow with sales of passenger cars.In this way with expansion into foreign markets, Toyota gained competitive strength by making the necessary changes and improvements through model changes, thereby effectively extending its export sales channels. Whereas the BJ-type Land Cruiser was originally built for military use, its design in time was modified to serve industrial expansion in peacetime, partly for the purpose of stimulating domestic demand for Toyota vehicles. Then in 1955, alongside production of the BJ-type Land Cruiser the 20-series made its debut.

The development theme for the 20-series was a new style with more driving comfort. As a result, it didn't have much in common with the Toyota BJ, instead showing more soft lines in the body styling. These major changes in the chassis frame created a basic design, which through the transition to the 40-series remained unchanged for 29 years.To improve the riding comfort first the springs in the suspension were changed. The leaf springs in the front and rear were lengthened and the number of plates reduced to 4 to create a softer cushion. In addition, rubber bushings were added to the pivot and shackle in order to dampen the vibration transmitted to the cabin. Moreover, the inner channel of the side frame was extended, and the number of closed structure members was increased. The frame itself was strengthened so that the vibrations from the suspension would be absorbed rather than transmitted to the body.

Appearance of the First Real Station Wagon Production Period was from 1967 - 1980

The 40 series had three different body lengths all with the same face as uniqueness is a necessity for a utility vehicle with typical users that desire a sense of prestige. That was the reason why the long body FJ55V was given an exclusive vehicle body.

In 1967 the FJ45V was replaced with the FJ55V, which had a 2,700mm wheelbase. The Land Cruiser made its appearance as a cross-country type 4x4 vehicle, but the market had begun to accept the idea that it also could be a utility vehicle for carrying things. For that reason the demand increased for a vehicle with a larger body that could carry more people and more cargo.Toyota's response to this demand was to build wagons like the FJ35V and FJ45V. After that the demand became strong for a real station wagon.If all you need is a vehicle to carry people or cargo, an ordinary truck can do the job. However, even if you traveled to a work site by road, once the work was done the Land Cruiser was often expected to cross ground where there was no guarantee that the roads would be passable. Depending on the weather conditions the road might wash out or become submerged under water. It was for conditions like this that people selected a Land Cruiser.It is often assumed that all Land Cruisers were assembled at the Arakawa Auto Body Co., Ltd. (now Toyota Auto Body Co., Ltd.), but actually the long wheelbase versions such as the FJ35V and FJ45V were made at the Gifu Auto Body Industry Co., Ltd. At that time there were orders from overseas for trucks that could carry 7 to 9 people, and the demand was rising for a wagon type vehicle. Plans for a wagon design were pursued with the assumption that it would be built at the Arakawa Auto Body Co., Ltd.However, as Toyota had out a priority on development of passenger cars such as the Crown and the Corona, the Toyota design staff was too busy to be free to work on the Land Cruiser. As a result, up through the 40-series, the design was handled by on site technical staff working with little more than rulers and compasses. However, from the 50-series on, at last designers were again free to pay serious attention to the Land Cruiser, creating serious design sketches and clay models.Leaving some traces of the original 40-series, they added a brand new branch to the Land Cruiser tradition and created the FJ55V. The body size was larger than that of a compact car, the ride was as comfortable as a passenger car, and it was designed not just for utility but also for leisure use. It was designed to be able to cruise at 130km/h, in view of the high speed highways in America. It was also designed tough, to withstand the rugged treatment it was expected to get on the Australian landscape, and it was the first time that a Toyota truck was built entirely with fully enclosed box cross-section welded members. Already at this time it was engineered to meet American safety standards established through frontal crash testing at speeds of 50km/h, and all of these improvements strengthened the design of the vehicle.

As a result on the FJ55V frame the wheelbase was extended by 50mm, lengthening the rear overhang, and for improved productivity assembly was divided into 3 phases. Ordinarily this kind of reinforcement would be expected to add to the vehicle weight, however even while increasing the bending strength by 20% Toyota managed to actually reduce the vehicle weight by over 10kg. The FJ55V model also had a different length in the front of the frame depending on whether or not a winch was to be installed, a station wagon design that was fully ready for the new era.FJ55V engine was essentially the same F-type engine as the FJ45V that had been used in the 40-series, however there were significant improvements made particularly in the cylinder heads. The reason for this was to raise the rpm level at which the engine produced its maximum output, aiming at better performance in high speed driving, and also improvements were made to reduce emissions.On the new cylinder heads of the F-type engine the position of the boltholes that fixed the heads to the blocks was the same, but the shape of the heads was completely different. The combustion chamber had the same wedge shape, but the angles of the intake and exhaust valves were both fixed at 6-degrees, the shape and numbers of the rocker arms were modified, and the entire unit was made lighter. A passenger car use compact 4-cylinder 2R-type gasoline engine camshaft was added to improve intake efficiency at high rpm levels.With the FJ56V the engine evolved from the F-type to the 2F-type, with most of the changes centering on the specs for the piston displacement and the carburetor. The cylinder bore was increased by 4mm to gain more piston displacement, and improvements were made to part of the fuel delivery system, resulting in a power boost of 10PS.

The First Transfiguration in 30 Years : Production Period was from 1980's

The pressure from the preceding model sales volume was enormous. However, the 70 series was able evolve the Land Cruiser while maintaining the images of rigidity, reliability, and durability of the past. Without major alterations to the basic structure, many small details that pioneered the path to modernization were added on.

In 1984 a new 70-series was born, bringing to a close a long era of 29 years (including the 20-series) during which the 40-series remained virtually unchanged.There were limits to what could be done to modernize the old design of the 40-series model. For this reason Chief Engineer Masaomi Yoshii introduced a complete overhaul in the design, producing the 70-series to lead the Land Cruiser with a new generation.The first pre-condition however was that the new Land Cruiser was not to sacrifice any of its toughness, so a strong ladder frame was outfit with rigid leaf springs. The body plates were thickened by 1.0mm for added strength. While leaving something of the image of the 40-series, such as externally added fenders, it was also given modern features such as curved glass. As before there were two body types available, the short BJ70 (soft top and van), and the middle BJ73 (FRP top).In 1985 a derivative of the BJ70 model was added, the LJ71G, which had a 2L-T-type engine (4-cylinder, 2,446cc, 85PS, 19.2kgm). As indicated by the letter G, this model was registered as a passenger car type wagon. It had a soft appearance in the front mask, and the suspension had rigid coil springs. In the export model it was known as the Light Land Cruiser, or the Land Cruiser II. Moreover, this was the same engine that was installed in the 4 Runner.



Later the Land Cruiser shifted its weight to the 60-series. In competition to outdo its rival model the Pajero in terms of luxury, the 60-series evolved into the 80-series. During this period the 70-series tended to fade into the background.Then in 1990 a significant minor change was introduced in the 70-series, when two newly developed engines were introduced; the 1PZ-type engine (replacing the 3B-type with an OHC 5-cylinder, 3,469cc, 115PS, 23.5kgm engine specs), and the 1HZ-type engine (replacing the 13B-T with an OHC 6-cylinder, 4,163cc, 135PS, 28.5kgm engine specs). Moreover, to the middle length model a new ZX grade was added. Both the PZJ70 short and the HZJ73 underwent modifications.Following that in the same year the 70-series wagon underwent a complete makeover. In addition to the original 2-door, a 4-door semi-long was introduced, the name was changed to the Prado, and with other design changes it took on its own unique identity. The 4-door model had 3 rows of seats and could carry 8 people. Compared to the 70-series that was registered as a commercial vehicle, it now had more potential reclassified as an RV. The 2L-T-type was transformed with electronic controls in the new 2L-TE-type engine, which gave it improved performance. With the minor change the short version kept its LJ71 number, while the long version was renamed the LJ78. At this time also appeared a 4-door semi-long, with a choice of two engines the 1PZ or the 1HZ, named accordingly the PZJ77 and the HZJ77.

In 1991 the Prado semi-long had a wide body version added to the lineup. In 1993 the short also had a wide body version added, and a newly developed engine was added, the 1KZ-TE (2,982cc, NET130PS, 29.5kgm). All of this meant major improvements in performance. In 1994 the 1PZ-type engine was dropped from the van series, leaving only the 1HZ type of engine.With the full model change in 1996 it embarked on a new and independent path as the Prado. The van type underwent a series of minor changes, taking on front rigid coil springs in 1999, leading up to the present day.

Surpassing Its Rivals : Production Period was from 1996 - 2002

Demand for a 4WD with easy-to-ride characteristics naturally grew with the enhancement of user types experienced during this particular time. Gaining momentum from these demands, the Mitsubishi Pajero began to aggressively expand its market share. That was the main reason for the introduction of the 90 series Prado.

In 1996 the 70-series underwent a makeover and emerged as the 90-series Prado, an independent series of itself. The design was heavy duty, like the 70-series Prado, however with a smaller engine and light classification it took on the image of an underpowered 4x4, and consequently domestic sales did not do as well as expected.The 80-series was a tough competitor in the market, boasting better performance than its rival model in the class below it, the Mitsubishi Pajero. It did not really hold a candle either to the van type series which had fully independent suspension, 3 rows of seats, driving comfort and luxury on a par with a passenger car. Even though they were in different classes by spec, the closer rival for the Mitsubishi Pajero was really the Toyota 4 Runner.Toyota was aiming for supremacy in all classes, so it developed the 90-series Prado as its final weapon against the Mitsubishi Pajero. In addition to the standard size body there was also a wide-size body version, a sporty 3-door model as well as a 5-door model, which were all easy to distinguish from the outside. The 90-series Prado had a wide and low form, and looked amazingly similar to the Mitsubishi Pajero. Even the engine had similar specs, with two choices for the power unit, the 5VZ-FE-type gasoline engine (24-valve V6, 3,378cc, 185PS, 30.0kgm specs) and the 1KZ-TE-type diesel engine with intercooler (2,982cc, 140PS, 34.0kgm specs). The power train was a full-time 4x4, so that the lineup was clearly a front on comparison with the Mitsubishi Pajero. The Prado lineup included the KZJ90 short (diesel engine), the VZJ90 (gasoline engine), and in the long the KZJ95 (diesel engine) and the VZJ95 (gasoline engine). Like the 80-series, the long also offered a model called Active Vacation built for camping.In this way the specs and the lineup of the 90-series Prado was a major change, but there was another secret behind its birth. Actually the 90-series Prado essentially shared the same chassis platform as the 4 Runner 185-series that had just debuted half a year before. From the time of the 70-series wagon these had shared the same type of engine, and were in a similar class. In a sense it was an inevitable response to user demand that it would take on independent suspension in the front.

In 1999 there was a fairly significant minor change introduced, with changes in the front grille, front bumper, door trim, combination meter design, and the addition of multi-reflector headlamps. In addition an Optitron meter was added, along with other luxury upgrades. Even in the mechanisms options were added which could deliver high-performance on unpaved or muddy roads, such as Active Traction Control (TRC) and Vehicle Stability Control (VSC), as well as the option for A/T in most grades.In 2000 a newly developed diesel engine was introduced, the 1KD-FTV-type common rail type direct-injection engine with intercooler (DOHC in-line 4-cylinder, 2,982cc, 170PS, 35.9kgm specs). This was also a response to current demands for lower fuel consumption, cleaner gas emissions, less noise and vibration. Moreover, at this time also an engine immobilizer was added to all grades of the Land Cruiser as standard equipment, reflecting the problem of rising car thefts in Japanese society.

The 90-series Prado shares the same chassis platform as the 185-series 4 Runner, but the frame has greater durability than that of the Surf. The side frame on the Prado is constructed of fully closed cross-section members, and the inner channels which this forms are made of thicker steel plate. The inner channel is made of steel plates inside the side frame that reinforce and strengthen the entire frame.The front section of the frame has the first independent suspension ever put on a Land Cruiser. Beyond this, of the 2 upper and lower arms, the upper arm is mounted in a higher position than the usual type, which strengthens the overall resistance of the suspension to horizontal G force.Along with major changes to the suspension, the 90-series also introduced a newly developed 5VZ-FE-type gasoline engine. This 3.4-liter V6 DOHC engine with numerous technical improvements made to the cylinder heads was also more compact and lighter weight. Bringing the two camshafts closer together reduced the relative angle of the intake and exhaust valves, and as a result it was possible to create a pent roof type combustion chamber with less heat loss. Moreover, this engine was tuned for higher performance in the low- to mid- rpm range making it easier to handle.The diesel engine in the 90-series was inherited from the 1KZ-TE-type engine of the 70-series Prado. Thanks to its compact turbo charger and air-cooled intercooler, this engine got improved output, better fuel consumption, and lower emissions. In addition, with the balance shaft and reinforced durable cylinder block there was also less noise and vibration.As the 90-series developed new variations were added to the lineup, and more offroad 4x4 mechanisms were added. To cope with increased vehicle weight a new 4-cylinder 3RZ-FE-type gasoline engine was selected, and the 1KZ-FE-type diesel engine was replaced with a direct fuel injection 1KD-FTV-type that has greater output, lower fuel consumption, and cleaner emissions. Moreover, Active TRC was added to the drive train, which helped maintain constant delivery of drive force by automatically applying the brakes to any tire that began to spin when driving on uneven ground, enabling you to take full advantage of the existing traction in the other tires. This made the Prado both safer and more aggressive at the same time

The Path to Prestige : Prodction Period was from 1989 to 1998

The concept of the 80 series was the combination of "Advanced" and "Top Quality" features at the highest level.However, the true reason why the 80 series gained worldwide attention was the fact that it able to maintain its original toughness of excellent off-road characteristics while being loyal to the above.

In 1989 regular minor changes were introduced, all in the direction of greater luxury, which led eventually to the evolutionary transformation of the ever-popular 60-series into the new 80-series.At the time the 60-series was being driven more for leisure or family use, and as a town car, than as an offroad vehicle. Over time the demand increased for more fashionable and passenger car like characteristics. The response to this market demand was the 80-series Land Cruiser.The aim of the 80-series was to be both at the forefront of technology and luxury. Along with passenger car like styling in the front design, wide tires and large fenders gave it a bold effect, looking something like a luxury battleship that could cruise the land. It was a break from the tradition of the Japanese 4x4. Moreover, accommodations remained for offroad applications, such as space in the instrument panel to install wireless communications equipment, and a rail for mounting a roof carrier.It was large at 5 meters length and 2 meters wide, with 3 types of engines to choose from; the 3F-E-type gasoline engine, the 1HD-T-type direct-injection diesel turbo engine (4,163cc, 165PS, 37.0kgm), and the 1HZ-type diesel engine. For all but one type of model in the series, it came with rigid coil springs in front and rear, and a full-time 4x4 power train. Of course the top of the line van and wagon offered a VX Limited grade.In 1992 the original 3F-E-type engine was replaced in the new model FZJ80G with a 1FZ-FE-type gasoline engine (DOHC in-line 6-cylinder, 4, 476cc, 215PS, 38kgm specs). In 1995, the HDJ81V was added to the lineup, and the 1HD-T-type diesel engine took on 4-valves in the 1HD-FT-type engine (4,163cc, 170PS, 38.7kgm specs). In addition a camper style model called Active Vacation was added to the lineup, which was registered in a low tax and low maintenance bracket

The transition from the 60-series to the 80-series was more drastic than that from the 50-series to the 60-series. A number of new technologies were introduced, and it was more of a revolutionary change than an evolutionary one.The only engine that was kept on as it was from the 60-series was the 3F-E-type, while the diesel 1HD-T and the 1HZ-type that had also been used in the 70-series underwent major improvements not only in power but also in reduced noise and vibration, making it a new generation diesel engine. The new engine design included thicker cylinder walls with reinforced ribs, thoroughly researched through computer analysis. Moreover, the cylinder head cover and other parts that did not need to be reinforced were replaced with resinous parts, enabling the new engine to be stronger, lighter, and more compact at the same time.The 80-series lasted for about 9 years, during which both the gasoline and the diesel engines evolved. The gasoline engine progressed from the 3F-E type to the 1FZ-FE-type, which was a DOHC with 4 valves on each cylinder. The diesel engine progressed from the turbo spec 1HD-T-type to the 1HD-FT-type, which was also a 4-valve per cylinder type.In the power train, the transfer gained a central differential, and all but one grade had a full-time 4x4 system. A switch on the instrument panel enabled you to go from 2WD to high-range 4WD, while a lever on the floor enabled you to directly shift into LO range 4WD. This so-called HF2A transfer had electronic controls for locking the central differential when you wanted to, so that according to ground conditions even in part-time 4x4 mode you could drive effectively on bad roads. Moreover, there was also a maker option for an electronic differential lock mechanism on the front and rear axle, which enabled you to travel even further on bad roads.In the suspension, leaf springs were replaced with coil springs in front and rear. This maintained strong durability, while at the same time improving driving comfort and steering stability. There were 3 arms supporting the axle in the front, and 5 in the rear. Each arm had rubber bushings on the pivot portion, which were designed to provide strong axle support as well as reduce shocks and vibrations coming from rough road surfaces. The overall result was improved riding comfort


Aiming to be The World's Best : Production Period was in 1998

The 100 series debuted despite no apparent loss in popularity of the 80 series prestige SUV (Sports Utility Vehicle) which was at the pinnacle of its success. The luxuriousness even above the 80 series was aimed at being the world's top level and became an instant success

In 1998 the Land Cruiser 80-series underwent a model change resulting in the release of a new series, the Land Cruiser 100. By this time the name Land Cruiser had earned a strong reputation worldwide for its high performance on bad roads, maneuverability, durability; and as one of the most reliable 4x4s available it had been selected by the United Nations procurement, as well as domestically and overseas for rescue operations, as a relay vehicle for satellite broadcasting, and as a prestige SUV.For the wagon version a new 2UZ-FE-type V8 gasoline engine was developed, with 32 valves, a piston displacement of 4,663cc, 235PS and 43.0kgm in the specs. For the van model also a new 1HD-FTE-type diesel engine was developed, a 24-valve in-line 6-cylinder engine with a piston displacement of 4,163cc, an output of 205PS and 44.0kgm of torque. Both of these new engines were state-of-the-art power units engineered for low fuel consumption and low emissions.The front suspension was a double wishbone type independent suspension, and with rack and pinion steering, the Land Cruiser 100 was designed to feel more like a passenger car than its heavy-duty predecessors. To further improve riding comfort and steering stability, hydraulic vehicle height adjustment (AHC) and Skyhook TEMS in the suspension were also made available as options, clearly aiming at improved performance on paved roads.The interior was luxurious of course, with air-conditioning and an audio system befitting a luxury car.

The Land Cruiser 100-series has not only reached the top of the Land Cruiser series, but has actually come to represent the pinnacle of all offroad 4x4 vehicles, and is outfit with a full range of high-level mechanisms. Among these is AHC & Skyhook TEMS, truly the King of 4x4 systems. AHC stands for Active Height Control, which enables you to maintain a constant height of the vehicle, regardless of the load or number of passengers you are carrying. When driving offroad on ground with rough spots, the vehicle height can be raised to prevent the underside of the car from hitting or scraping the ground.The Skyhook TEMS mechanism electronically adjusts the damping force of the shock absorbers appropriately according to ground conditions, and this system both makes for a more comfortable ride and improves handling stability. A soft suspension makes a more comfortable ride, but the problem is that it also tends to increase instability and feels unsettled. Stiff suspension settings provide more stability, but make the ride also feel stiff and unpleasant. Skyhook TEMS overcomes these respective limitations and gives you the best of both worlds.The addition of a 2UZ-FE-type V8 gasoline engine was just right for a luxury 4x4. This engine was a scaled up version of the 4-liter V8 1UZ-FE-type engine that Toyota used in its luxury passenger model the Celsior (known overseas as the Lexus LS400). For its installation in the Land Cruiser 100-series its aluminum alloy cylinder block was made more durable by using a steel compound. Moreover, the brake system was tuned, and the engine was modified to give it higher performance in the mid- to low rpm range, befitting the heavy body that the engine had to move.For the diesel engine in the series, the 1HD-FT-type that had been used in the 80-series was given refinements, and a high-pressure compact electronically controlled direct-injection fuel pump and intercooler were added. Thus the 1HD-FTE-type engine was created, with improvements in power, fuel consumption, and emissions. Along with the direct-injection fuel pump, the injection nozzle was improved, which resulted in greatly reduced noise and vibration. The 2H-type engine had been used in the 60-series. This was the original predecessor of the 1HD-FTE-type engine that carried the Land Cruiser diesel engine into the next century

A Full model Change for the First Time in Six Years: Production year 2002

The theme for this full model change was "NEW TRADITIONAL 4WD". The outstanding driving ability succeeded through the generations was further enhanced together with also pursuing excellent onroad running ability

Continuing the tradition of the preceding 90 Series, the Land Cruiser underwent a full model change in 2002 with further enhanced outstanding drivability under grueling conditions. The quality of the interior and exterior has also been thoroughly refined for a pleasant onroad driving experience that looks set to create a new legacy in the Land Cruiser Prado tradition.In terms of performance, the front suspension features an independent double wishbone structure while the rear adopts a 4-link axle suspension. A newly designed and exclusive high rigidity frame provides superior maneuverability and running stability while also offering a comfortable ride. The new Land Cruiser not only evolves offroad driving characteristics, but also fully enhances its onroad driving performance.In addition to the adoption of a new frame, the effective placement of sound reducing and absorbing material and the new flush body surface result in quiet road, wind, and engine noise on par with a medium-high class passenger sedan.Newly developed Torsen LSD (Limited Slip Differential) is used for the center differential and distributes 40:60 front/rear basic driving force with automatic and instant adjusting to ideal distribution of front and rear torque according to road conditions for enhanced tracability during turning. This has resulted in superior onroad driving as well as superior traction in slippery conditions such as on icy roads. In addition, an active TRC (TRaction Control system) independently controls braking at all four wheels with a active wheel speed sensor semiconductor for superior control when climbing and descending. Furthermore, DAC (Downhill Assist Control) enhances vehicle stability when descending steep slopes, while Hill start assist control depresses vehicle rearward motion when climbing steep slopes.


For the exterior, the Toyota design keywords of "Vibrant" and "Clarity" have been successfully carried over to this full-fledged 4WD vehicle. While maintaining the Land Cruiser's functional and dynamic shape, the design goal was for a clean and long-lasting design. Inheriting the unique characteristics of the strong presence of 5-door models and a vibrant feel of the 3-door models, this new model has a Land Cruiser Prado look while also adding next-generation appeal with vertically oriented headlamps and front grilles, and a cabin shape consisting of flowing surfaces. The length, width, and wheelbase have been increased while the height has been kept down for an extremely stable yet rugged look

THE TOP OF THE FOOD CHAIN: Production year 2008

lake Victoria - A lake that have swallowed hundreds of people in May 1996

Lake Victoria Primary outflows is the river Nile. its catchment area is 184,000 km²238,900 km² and it is shared within three countries ie Tanzania Uganda Kenya Max. length 337 km and Max. width 250 km. its Surface area68,800 km² and an Average depth 40 m to Max. depth 83 m. Water volume 2,750 km³. Settlements around the lake include Bukoba,Mwanza, Kisumu, Kampala,Entebbe.

LAKE VICTORIA TRAGEDY

Lake Victoria tragedy ,Tanzania in May 1996 NEWS BULLETIN, MAY 22 (to30) 1996.400 FEARED DEAD IN STEAMER DISASTERAbout 400 people are feared drowned in a steamer disaster on Lake Victoria. The steamer, MV Bukoba, sank near Bukoba, Tanzania Tuesday with 600 people on board. Most of them are feared dead. Radio Tanzania said last night that only 21 bodies had been recovered by Tuesday afternoon and latest press reports say that about 120 people have been rescued so far. The steamer was from Bukoba headed for Mwanza when it sank about 30 nautical miles from Mwanza. All available vessels sailed to the disaster scene in an effort to rescue survivors. Reports said the ship can carry 600 to 700 passengers and cargo of 850 tonnes. Reports say the 17 year old ship was in bad shape and some travellers had expressed concern at its condition. The steamer recently developed some problems near Mwanza and almost sank according to press reprots here. The Bukoba resumed service between Port Bell in Uganda, Kisumu in Kenya and Mwanza in February after the revival of East African Co-operation. Reports from Uganda say the MV Butiama which sailed out of Entebbe and the Clarins from Kerewe, sighted the Bukoba sinking. Radio Tanzania reports said there was little hope of finding more survivors though the rescue operations were continuing. The Bukoba sinking is the worst ever disaster on Lake Victoria.MKAPA DECLARES 3 DAYS MOURNING FOR STEAMER VICTIMSPresident Benjamin Mkapa of Tanzania has declared three days of national mourning for victims of East Africa's worst ship disaster yesterday. About 500 people are feared dead after the sinking of a steamer - The MV Bukoba - near Mwanza in Lake Victoria. According to latest reports about 120 people have been rescued with injuries and 21 bodies recovered. The sinking occurred at Kariemo Island, about 30 kilometres from Mwanza, the Radio said. The top officials of the Tanzania Railways Corporation, the owners of the steamer, rushed to the accident scene and President Mkapa is leading a team of government officials to Mwanza today. Mkapa described the accident as a national tragedy and called on the people of Mwanza to join hands with the families of the bereaved. Reports from Mwanza say the steamer tragedy has completely overshadowed the Burundi peace talks that are due to open today. They are a followup to the first round of talks held in Mwanza last month. Lake Victoria covers about 70,000 square kilometres and is the second largest fresh water lake in the world. Ferries ply routes connecting towns on the Lake in the East Africa countries of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. But there have been fears over the operations of the ferry ships because they are often overloaded. There have been boat accidents and other mishaps in the Lake but the Bukoba sinking is the one with the highest toll so far.NEWS BULLETIN, MAY 23, 1996.LAKE TRAGEDY DOMINATES MEDIA IN REGIONNewspapers, radio and television stations in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania extensively covered the Lake Victoria tragedy in which more than 500 people are feared dead with the sinking of the Bukoba steamer near Mwanza on Tuesday. According to press reports from the scene of the tragedy, all manner of vessels - ferries, cargo ships, and even small boats were circling the area in the hope of rescuing some survivors or recovering bodies but there was little lack. In Mwanza, crowds waited in vain for relatives or their bodies as boats returned from the scene. So far only about 125 survivors have been rescued and 25 bodies recovered. Most of the passengers were trapped in their cabins when the ship sank into Africa's largest lake. The Tanzanian Minister of transport and communications, William Kusila, who with President Benjamin Mkapa visited the scene Wednesday, said 522 passengers were trapped in the submerged ship. "We fear that about 522 people, who remained on the ship are dead," he told the press in Mwanza. He said a whole night patrol at the scene of the accident did not trace any survivor or any dead body. Kusila admitted that the ship was carrying a lot more passengers than its capacity of 400 and cargo of 85 tonnes. But he denied that overloading was the cause of the accident because the ship was carrying only a tenth of the cargo capacity.MOI SENDS CONDOLENCES TO TANZANIA OVER STEAMER TRAGEDYPresident Daniel Moi of Kenya and the official leader of the opposition Ford Kenya party Kijana Wamalwa have sent messages of condolences to Tanzanian President Benjamin Mkapa over the ship tragedy on Lake Victoria. Moi called for co-operation among the three East African countries of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania to ensure that ship facilities are safe to protect human life. Wamalwa urged the three East African leaders to work jointly for safe navigation on the lake. He said Kenya had been deeply shocked and pained by the tragic news of the steamers sinking and the loss of life. Others who spoke out against the Lake tragedy were Ford Kenya MP, Phoebe Asiyo who called upon the three states to investigate the accident. Such an investigation, she suggested, could help institute safe measures to avoid future disasters. "The lake disaster will have a negative impact on the trade between the three East African countries, which had picked up since the launch of the East African Co-operation early this year, " said Asiyo. Another Ford MP, Professor Rashid Mzee said the steamer disaster was an East African tragedy and called for the regular servicing of ferries and ships. They should also be equipped with life savers

They should also be fully insured to guarantee ability to compensate for loss of life or injury in accidents. The Tanzanian consulate in Mombasa appealed to both Kenya and Uganda to help wherever possible.TANZANIANS REPORTED IN STATE OF SHOCK OVER TRAGEDYA mood of gloom and shock has reportedly engulfed Tanzanians over the Lake disaster in which more than 500 people are feared dead. But there was also a sense of anger and irritation with vocal elements in Dar es Salaam saying the tragedy was a result of negligence. There were those who said that overloading was the norm in the ships and even trains. "We seem to treat ships, trains and even buses as unlimited as to carrying capacity," one man in Dar es Salaam told Features Africa. "If aviation was not a strict business, I am sure we would also have overloaded flights," he added. Other people Features Africa contacted on the streets of the Tanzanian capital said that because of the bad state of the road between Bukoba and Mwanza, many people travelled between the two towns by steamer. An old man wailed about his twenty relatives who were travelling back to Dar from a funeral in Bukoba. He said the body of one of them had been recovered and he feared the worst for the rest. Operators of the vessels on the Lake have been blamed by various people and organisations in Kenya and Tanzania. Travellers said overloading tended to appear invevitable but it could have been easily avoided by increasing the frequency of the ships on the most travelled routes. The Bukoba left the port of Bukoba with 300 passengers but on its cargo stop at Kemondo Bay, more passengers forced their way in . The ship has no passenger manifest for third class passengers and so it has been difficult to establish the exact number of people who were on board.MARINE NAVIGATOR SAYS BUKOBA WAS DISASTER WAITING TO HAPPENA former Kenya Navy Captain and now a consultant on marine navigation, Captain Joseph Muguthi has said that the Bukoba disaster was just waiting to happen, according to a report he wrote in the Daily Nation newspaper here Thursday. He says he would not be surprised if a similar disaster occurred because ships and ferries on the Lake flout all safety regulations with great impunity. Muguthi says the ships do not have life jackets for those on board, do not carry life rifts or life boats nor do they have enough fire fighting equipment on board in cases of fire outbreaks. And in the case of disasters, they have no sound signals, distress signals. And they do not under go mandatory dry docking every 18 months nor do they have their equipment regularly checked. But Muguthi says boats are the worst when it comes to flouting safety regulations. "These boats are never inspected. They never carry any safety equipment. One wonders how they obtain their seaworthiness licences without the safety equipment. Their coxswains have no licence to navigate," declared the ex-Kenya navy officer. He says to stop the carnage on the Lake, all navigators of vessels should have certificates, their vessels should be dry-docked every 18 months for major repairs. The safety regulations and the requirements for life-saving equipment should be in all vessels, even fishing and passenger boats. Life jackets should be given to every passenger boarding who should wear it until they disembark. According to Muguthi this would also help to prevent overloading because nobody without a life jacket would be permitted on board. However, he says the most important decision should be to make all the marine departments in the three East African countries autonomous and managed at all levels by marine officers. "As it is now, in Kampala, Dar es Salaam and Nairobi - these departments are manned at the decision-making levels by non-marines and politicians who know next to nothing about sea-faring," said Muguthi. These people do not understand marine decisions. He gave an example of the sacking of a Tanzanian captain for refusing to navigate an unseaworthy vessel. Captain Muguthi said in the colonial era, marine commanders and engineers were in charge of marine operations. He said that in Nyanza province, if the provincial commissioner went on leave, the top marine officer acted in his absence which solved the importance of the department and the respect accorded to his head.



NEWS BULLETIN, MAY 24, 1996.TANZANIA MOURNS OVER SHIP TRAGEDYTanzania is in three-days national mourning for Tuesday's Lake tragedy in which 500 passengers are feared dead. A statement issued by the Ministry of Education and Culture directed all sporting and entertainment activities to stop in observance of the national mourning. Another directive from President Benjamin Mkapa ordered all flags to fly at half-mast. The 35th national athletics championships and the East Africa Disco championships which were scheduled to start today in Dodoma and Dar es Salaam respectively have been cancelled.The 1996 Miss Dar es Salaam Beauty pageant has also been postponed.KENYA'S SALVAGE EXPERTS IN MWANZAKenya's marine salvage experts based in Mombasa are already in Mwanza in response to a request from Tanzania to help salvage the MV Bukoba which sank in Lake Victoria near Mwanza on Tuesday and has more than 500 bodies trapped in it. A two man team from the Divecon firm in Mombasa, left Thursday afternoon by Charter plane to join an international team to help Tanzania. South Africa was also reportedly sending experts to Mwanza. The Kenyan experts took part in salvaging the MV Mtongwe ferry which sank two years ago killing 270 people in Mombasa. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) said Tanzania's own salvage efforts were futile. The country has only seven divers and 12 oxygen tanks. The tanks, according to an official of the ICRC would only last one hour under water but there is no refill equipment. Observers in Mwanza said there was little evidence of major and organised operation mainly because Tanzania did not have the people and the equipment. Hope was placed in the immediate arrival of foreign teams to salvage the ship and retrieve the bodies. President Benjamin Mkapa has promised an official inquiry into the disaster "and whoever is responsible will be punished". Mkapa was speaking after prayers for the dead in Mwanza. The Minister of Transport, William Kusila said expert drivers and cutting equipment were needed for the salvage and retrieve operation. The ship is 25 metres under water and so far only 125 survivors have been rescued and 25 bodies retrieved. Some of the survivors said the ship was clearly overloaded and swayed and banked for several hours before it sank. The ship's capacity was 433 passengers, and 55 tonnes of cargo. But Radio Tanzania said 522 people were trapped in the cabins. Among those feared dead were school children, a church choir and East African businessmen who ply the routes that connect Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania across the Lake, Africa's biggest.PRIESTS KILLED IN FERRY ACCIDENTTwo Uganda Catholic priest are among the people believed to have died in the Tuesday's disaster on Lake Victoria which claimed hundreds of lives near the Tanzanian port of Mwanza. An announcement on Radio Uganda yesterday identified the clergy as Brother Mpuga and Brother Alexandria from the Banakaloli Brothers of Kiteredde in Masaka diocese in Western Uganda. "Yes we have heard the announcement on radio but we have not received any (concrete) information about the reported deaths," said the aide in the office of the Bishop of Masaka Diocese. Over ten Ugandans are believed to have died in the accident when the Tanzanian vessel, MV Bukoba, capsized. A spokesman of the Uganda Railways Corporation (URC) which was helping with the rescue operation said yesterday they had registered 120 survivors and rescued 45 bodies.NEWS BULLETIN, MAY 25, 1996.DISASTER SHIP HAD BEEN ADVERTISED AS UNSEAWORTHYA Kenyan newspaper, the Daily Nation reported here that the disaster Tanzania ship which sank in Lake Victoria with loss of more than 500 lives had been advertised as unseaworthy. The MV Bukoba was advertised in the Uhuru newspaper as unseaworthy on April 30 and operations had ceased because of mechanical problems. The advertisement was placed by the Tanzania Railways Corporation who owned the ship. An electrical engineer says he survived the tragedy thanks to that advert. He was made aware of the danger of travelling in the ship and so wore a life jacket. "I put on my life jacket because I knew from the word go that there was something wrong with the vessel's balance. And I believe the corporation knew even better," said the engineer, Kamuli Magolanga according to the newspaper report. The engineer says the Railways Corporation has a number of questions to answer.LAKE DISASTER TOLL MAY BE 1000 According to the latest reports from Mwanza divers who entered the sunken ferry Bukoba and removed bodies on Friday, say, they think there are more than 1,000 bodies on board. Tanzanian officials said more than 500 were killed but the exact toll was unclear as they had differing figures for the number aboard when the vessel capsized and sank on Tuesday. The ferry has a legal capacity of 430. Twenty eight bodies were recovered before Friday. A total of 114 survivors have been officially listed but the ship's owners say more may have survived but not notified the authorities. By Friday rescuers had recovered 158 bodies but stopped the operation at dusk.NEWS BULLETIN, MAY 27, 1996.TANZANIA BURIES SHIP TRAGEDY VICTIMS More than 150 decomposed bodies recovered from the sunken passenger vessel were buried Saturday in mass graves with national honour in Mwanza, northern Tanzania town. The decomposed bodies could not be identified by their relatives.These bodies are among more than 200 that had been fished out of the lake by rescue operations Saturday, the local paper The Guardian reported yesterday. Ferry MV Bukoba carrying 660 passengers and 20 tonnes of cargo when it sank last Tuesday in Lake Victoria, eight nautical miles from its destination of Mwanza. The boat had a legal capacity of 430 passengers. The identified bodies recovered were taken by relatives for burial under the supervision of the International Red Cross. The multi-denominational funeral at Igona on the outskirts of Mwanza was led by retired President Ali Hassan Mwinyi and senior government officials. "While sending condolences to those bereaved, I would like to assure you that this is not just your tragedy, it is a national tragedy for Tanzania," Mwinyi told some 5,000 grief-stricken mourners. Salmin Amour also attended the sombre occasion on behalf on the Zanzibar government. It is reported that a contigent of 28 South African navy divers arrived in Mwanza Saturday to help in the rescue operations. And another South Africa reinforcement team is expected to be in Mwanza today. The Mwanza regional commissioner, James Luhanga said two burial services would be done every day at the site for the unclaimed bodies until the exercise was over.THE MV BUKOBA WAS NOT INSURED Tanzania newspaper reports say the disaster ship, The MV Bukoba, in which more than 1000 people are feared to have perished when it sunk near Mwanza, in Lake Victoria last week was not insured. The families of the dead cannot therefore expect to be compensated or to file claims. According to the reports, international regulations do not compel ships or trains to be insured. There was also no institution in Tanzania, under regulations, to declare or certify the seaworthiness of a vessel. But President Benjamin Mkapa has already assured families and relatives of the dead that the government will compensate them for the loss of their dear ones. Mkapa, however, pointed out that in some cases almost whole families were wiped out or the victims were foreigners. It has been difficult to establish the number of foreigners on the sunken ship because the manifest only shows the 443 passengers in the first and second class compartments. The third class compartment which is cheaper and therefore carries more people had no manifest. Reports still to be confirmed indicate 10 Ugandans, died in the tragedy. Kenya has yet to establish how many Kenyans died but President Daniel Moi has also promised compensation for victims. A Tanzanian family is said to have lost 25 members. A School choir of 15 girls also perished in the ship disaster.NEWS BULLETIN, MAY 30, 1996.NINE CHARGED IN BUKOBA FERRY DISASTERNine officials of the Tanzania Railway Corporation (TRC) have been charged with causing the deaths of hundreds of people on the Bukoba ferry which capsized on Lake Victoria last week. Radio Tanzania said the nine, charged before a High Court in Mwanza face the death sentence if convicted. They were not required to enter a plea. The master of the ferry MV Bukoba, Captain Jumanne Rume was suspended by the government on Monday. Others suspended are Clephas Magoge, manager of TRC's marine division, and six other officials pending investigations. According to the prosecution, the men are responsible for the deaths of more than 500 people, but as many as 1,000 people are feared to have died in the overloaded ferry

The Greatest Maritime Disaster in History

THE TITANIC, THE MAN'S CREATION, THE NAME THAT WILL LIVE FOREVER

The Royal Mail Ship TITANIC was the last grand dream of the Gilded Age. It was designed to be the greatest achievement of an era of prosperity, confidence and propriety. Although no one knew it, the world was about to change drastically. Radio had been invented in 1901. The Wright Brothers' first successful flight was in 1903. The old presumptions about class, morals, and gender-roles were about to be shattered. If the concept of Titanic was the climax of the age, then perhaps its sinking was the curtain that marked the end of the old drama, and the start of a new one.The intensely competitive transatlantic steamship business had seen recent major advances in ship design, size and speed. White Star Line, one of the leaders, determined to focus on size and elegance rather than pure speed. In 1907, White Star Line's managing director J. Bruce Ismay and Lord James Pirrie, a partner in Harland & Wolff (White Star Line's ship-builder since its founding in 1869) conceived of three magnificent steam ships which would set a new standard for comfort, elegance, and safety. The first two were to be named Olympic and Titanic, the latter name chosen by Ismay to convey a sense of overwhelming size and strength.

It took a year to design the two ships. Construction of Olympic started in December, 1908, followed by Titanic in March 1909. The Belfast shipyards of Harland & Wolff had to be re-designed to accommodate the immense projects while White Star's pier in New York had to be lengthened to enable the ships to dock. During the two years it took to complete Titanic's hull, the press was primed with publicity about the ship's magnificence, making Titanic virtually a legend before her launch. The "launch" of the completed steel in May, 1911, was a heavily publicized spectacle. Tickets were sold to benefit a local children's hospital.She was then taken for "fitting out" which involved the construction of the ship's many facilities and systems, her elaborate woodwork and fine decor. As the date of her maiden voyage approached, the completed Olympic suffered a collision and required extensive repairs, increasing the workload at Harland & Wolff, which was already struggling to complete Titanic on schedule. Titanic's maiden voyage was delayed from March 20 to April 10.Titanic was 883 feet long (1/6 of a mile), 92 feet wide and weighed 46,328 tons. She was 104 feet tall from keel to bridge, almost 35 feet of which were below the waterline... even so, she stood taller above the water than most urban buildings of the time. There were three real smoke-stacks; a fourth, dummy stack was added largely to increase the impression of her gargantuan size and power and to vent smoke from her numerous kitchens and galleys. She was the largest movable object ever made by man. The ship's immense size and complexity is illustrated by an incident recalled by Second Officer Lightoller. There was a gangway door on the starboard side aft "large enough to drive a horse and cart through." Yet three officers who joined the ship during her preparations spent a whole day simply trying to find their way to it.Moreover, she was designed to be a marvel of modern safety technology. She had a double-hull of 1-inch thick steel plates and a (heavily publicized) system of 16 water-tight compartments, sealed by massive doors which could be instantly triggered by a single electric switch on the bridge, or even automatically by electric water-sensors. The press began to call her "unsinkable."Her accommodations were the most modern and luxurious on any ocean, and included electric light and heat in every room, electric elevators, a swimming pool, a squash court (considered terribly modern), a Turkish Bath, a gymnasium with a mechanical horse and mechanical camel to keep riders fit, and staterooms and first class facilities to rival the best hotels on the Continent. First class passengers would glide down a six-story, glass-domed grand staircase to enjoy haute cuisine in the sumptuous first class dining saloon that filled the width of the ship on D Deck. For those who desired a more intimate atmosphere, Titanic also offered a stately à la carte restaurant, the chic Palm Court and Verandah restaurant, and the festive Cafe Parisien. She offered two musical ensembles (rather than the standard one) of the best musicians on the Atlantic, many of them lured from rival liners. There were two libraries, first- and second-class. Even the third class (steerage) cabins were more luxurious than the first class cabins on some lesser steamships, and boasted amenities (like indoor toilet facilities) that some of Titanic's emigrant passengers had not enjoyed in their own homes.The original design called for 32 lifeboats. However, White Star management felt that the boat-deck would look cluttered, and reduced the number to 20, for a total life-boat capacity of 1178. This actually exceeded the regulations of the time, even though Titanic was capable of carrying over 3500 people (passengers and crew).The maiden voyage lured the "very best people:" British nobility, American industrialists, the very cream of New York and Philadelphia society. It also attracted many poor emigrants, hoping to start a new life in America or Canada.The journey began at Southampton on Wednesday April 10, 1912 at Noon. By sundown, Titanic had stopped in Cherbourg, France to pick up additional passengers. That evening she sailed for Queenstown, Ireland, and at 1:30 PM on Thursday, April 11, she headed out into the Atlantic.The seasoned transatlantic passengers were deeply impressed by the new ship. She was so massive that they barely felt the movement of the sea at all. Her huge, powerful engines produced almost none of the annoying vibration common on other steamers, and their noise was barely perceptible. And she achieved this extraordinary level of comfort while traveling at 22 knots, not the fastest boat on the route, but certainly one of the top five.Weather was pleasant and clear, and the water temperature was about 55 degrees. The winter of 1912 had been unusually mild, and unprecedented amounts of ice had broken loose from the arctic regions. Titanic was equipped with Marconi's new wireless telegraph system and her two Marconi operators kept the wireless room running 24 hours a day. On Sunday, April 14, the fifth day at sea, Titanic received five different ice-warnings, but the captain was not overly concerned. The ship steamed ahead at 22 knots, and the line's Managing Director J. Bruce Ismay relished the idea of arriving in New York a day ahead of schedule.On the night of April 14, wireless operator Phillips was very busy sending chatty passenger's messages to Cape Race, Newfoundland, whence they could be relayed inland to friends and relatives. He received a sixth ice-warning that night, but didn't realize how close Titanic was to the position of the warning, and put that message under a paperweight at his elbow. It never reached Captain Smith or the officer on the bridge.By all accounts, the night was uncommonly clear and dark, moonless but faintly glowing with an incredible sky full of stars. The stars were so bright that one officer mistook the planet Jupiter (then rising just above the horizon) for a steamship light.The sea was, likewise, unusually calm and flat, "like glass" said many survivors. The lack of waves made it even more difficult to spot icebergs, since there was no telltale white water breaking at the edges of the bergs.At 11:40, a lookout in the crow's nest spotted an iceberg dead ahead. He notified the bridge and First Officer Murdoch ordered the ship turned hard to port.

He signaled the engine room to reverse direction, full astern. The ship turned slightly, but it was much too large, moving much too fast, and the iceberg was much too close. 37 seconds later, the greatest maritime disaster in history began. During that night of heroism, terror and tragedy, 705 lives were saved, 1502 lives were lost, and many legends were born.

The Secret of How the Titanic Sank
New evidence has experts rethinking how the luxury passenger liner sank
According to Justin Ewers

For decades after the disaster, there was little doubt about what sank the Titanic. When the "unsinkable" ship, the largest, most luxurious ocean liner of its time, crashed into an iceberg on its maiden voyage in 1912, it took more than 1,500 of its 2,200 passengers to the bottom. As the ship slipped into the North Atlantic, so, too, did the secret of how and why it sank.

Two government investigations conducted immediately after the disaster agreed it was the iceberg, not any weakness in the ship itself, that caused the Titanic to sink. Both inquiries concluded the vessel had gone to the bottom intact. Blame for the incident fell on the ship's deceased captain, E. J. Smith, who was condemned for racing at 22 knots through a known ice field in the dark waters off the coast of Newfoundland. The case of the Titanic was considered closed.
But lingering questions about what might have sunk the seemingly indestructible ship never completely disappeared. In 1985, when oceanographer Robert Ballard, after years of searching, finally located the ship's remains 2.5 miles down on the ocean bottom, he discovered that it had, in fact, broken in two on the surface before sinking. His findings made the Titanic rise again in the public imagination. Why had it cracked, experts wondered? If the official inquiries were wrong, was the invincible Titanic weak? A few years after Ballard discovered the wreck, the first pieces of the ship were brought to the surface, raising even more eyebrows when they seemed to offer physical evidence that low-quality steel might have caused the disaster. In 1997, James Cameron's film Titanic largely mirroring the scientific consensus at the time, seared Titanic's terrifying last moments, with its stern soaring high into the air before it cracked in two and disappeared, into popular memory.
Still, the search for answers about the Titanic didn't end there. In two new books, a group of historians, naval architects, and materials scientists argue that fresh evidence has further unraveled the familiar story of the Titanic, raising more questions about what caused the disaster. In What Really Sank the Titanic: New Forensic Discoveries Jennifer Hooper McCarty, a materials scientist at Oregon Health and Science University, and Tim Foecke, a scientist at the National Institute of Standards and Technology, make the case that it wasn't the ship's steel that was weak; it was the rivets, the all-important metal pins that held the steel hull plates together. Titanic's Last Secrets to be published next month, describes the work of Richie Kohler and John Chatterton, wreck-diving historians who believe two recently discovered pieces of the Titanic's bottom prove the ship's stern never rose high in the air the way many Titanic experts, including Cameron, originally believed. The two divers, whose discovery of a lost German U-boat was chronicled in the book Shadow Divers say the ship broke up and sank while still relatively flat on the surface—a potential sign of weakness, they believe, that was covered up after the disaster.
When the Titanic's keel was laid down in 1909, Harland & Wolff, the Belfast shipbuilder that constructed the ship, certainly didn't believe its design would still be controversial a hundred years later. Built in response to a rival company's construction of a new generation of fast liners, Titanic and her sister ships, Olympic and Britannic, were the biggest ships ever made—from bow to stern, they were almost 900 feet long, dwarfing even the world's biggest skyscrapers. Specially outfitted to handle the challenges of the North Atlantic, including big waves and major collisions, they were also supposed to be among the safest. The Titanic could stay afloat with four of its 16 watertight compartments flooded, more than anyone could imagine on a ship of its size.

Also New research by alec Mc vain indicated that the ship foundered after suffering six narrow gashes, not one large one, as thought. Computer calculations, help reveal the detailed stages: When the Titanic struck the iceberg, six of its 16 watertight compartments were damaged. The ship started taking on water in the bow through openings about 20 feet below the water line. As the liner nosed down, water flooded compartments one after another and the ship's stern began rising out of the water. As the stern rose ever higher, the stress amidships was more than the vessel could bear. It broke apart just forward of the third funnel. The bow began to sink. With the bow gone, the stern temporarily settled back to nearly level. The stern then rapidly flooded and rose out of the water, pivoting on the surface. It held that vertical position about a minute and then slowly slipped beneath the surface. The bow section sank gently and plowed into the mud. The stern's impact was more traumatic: when it hit bottom, it buried itself some 50 feet, crumpling the steel hull.